Theoretical Frameworks
Language Variation
Because there are many languages are used in society, language variation occurs in the social environment. According to Yule that each language has more than one variety, especially in the way in which it is spoken. People may not only speak in one language but also some languages is used for interaction with their group in their daily life and each language has its certain characteristics, which cause the variety of a language.
Richards and Jack argue that “language variation refers to the differences in pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language, which may be related to regional, social class, and educational background to the degree of formality of a situation in which language is used”.1 It means that the various regions, social class, and educational background may cause a variety of a language.
Further, bilingual and multilingual society may cause language variation occurs. For some reasons, people need
1 Richard, Jack and Richard Schmidt, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. (London: Person Edication Limited, 2002), p. 557.
choose the language use in their interaction, it can be code switching, code mixing, or other variations.
According to Chaer and Agustina that “code switching occurs when one uses clause which has grammatical structure of another language” while “code mixing is characterized by using a word or phrase, but it has no grammatical structure”.2 From that statement, the writer concludes that if someone uses a word or a phrase from another language, the person has mixed his or her code, not switched, but if uses the clause has grammatical structure of another language, it means that the person has switched his or her code.
For most individuals, mother tongue is the most used conversely. Second language tends to be the secondary in the terms of use. However, it does not happen to migrant community. Migrants tend to lose their mother tongue as primary medium of communication. Mother tongue is only used for home, friendship, and hearth communication. In this community, mother tongue is displaced by the dominant language, the language of host community.3 If this community observed, it will be found a phenomenon in which one person uses two languages or more and often called bilingual or multilingual. In using both languages, the possibility of using
2 Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustine, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan awal. (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2004), p. 115.
3 T. Roger Bell, Sociolinguistic: Goals, approach, and problem, (London: Batsford itd, 1976). p. 116.
two languages perfectly is rare. Person switches and mixes one language with other partially. In sociolinguistics, these terms are called code switching and code mixing.
Code Switching
Definition
According to Trudgill that “code switching is the process where bilingual speaker switches between one language and another language within the same conversation or called a bilingual person”.4 A bilingual person is a person who is able to use two languages.
Code switching also occurs when people after their speech and behavior to fit into different social situations. The most common changes involve vocabulary and ones of casualness or formality.5 For example is, when we converse with friends, we prefer to use informal language but when the teacher or lecturer gets into the conversation, automatically the speaker switches this language into formal language.
Brown states that “code switching can occur between different language, dialect, or style within one
4 Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction. (Harmondworth: Penguin Book Ltd, 1974). p. 23.
5 Nancy Bonvillain, Language, Culture, and Communication, (New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2003), p. 335.
sentence”.6 This theory is supported by Hymes in Chaer and Agustina, he says that code switching has become terms for alternate us of two or more language, varieties of language, or event speech styles. From theories above, one can conclude that code switching happens when someone switch his/her languages.7
From the explanations, it can be conclude that code switching is the process of speaker switches between one language and another language in the same conversation, the changes that occur within overall the context of sentence or issue. To make it clear, it is said in an example; when someone used English in conversation then changed it into Indonesian to continue his speech, it is called code switching. For example, in the English classroom teacher explain in English the he said: “Pay attention!” Materi ini sangat sulit”. From that speech, teacher used English “Pay attention!” then he continue in his speech by Indonesian “Materi ini sangat sulit”. The Indonesian he said has some reasons. Perhaps the student don’t understand the English of “Materi ini sangat sulit”, so he said in Indonesia.
6 Steven Brown and Salvatore Attardo, An Introduction to Applied Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Nonspecialict, (USA: Micigan Press, 2000), p. 84.
7 Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustine, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan awal, (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2004). p. 108.
Types of code switching
The types of code switching can be classified in two classification, those are grammatical and contextual classification. The grammatical classification which is based on the position of the different codes found in the utterances or sentence while the contextual classification is based on the reasons why people switch. According to the grammatical and contextual classification, these are the types of code switching:8
Three types of code switching based on grammatical classification:
Tag code-switching, happens when a bilingual inserts short expression (tag) from different language at the end of his /her utterances.
e.g.: An Indonesian bilingual switches from English into Indonesian, “It is okay, no problem, ya nggak?”
Inter-sentential code-switching happens when there is complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language.
e.g. Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak kok didengerin.
8 Made Iwan Indrawan Jenda, Sociolingiostics, The study of Societies‟ Language, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu, 2012), p. 75.
Intra-sentential code-switching is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language.
e.g. The hotel, yang megah itu, is really huge and unbelievely majestic.
The contextual classifications devided into two types of code-switching, namely the situational and metaphorical code-switching.9
Situational Code-Switching
A situational code-switching appears when there is a change in the situation that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other. The changing situations involved could be the Setting, the Participants, or the Norms of Interaction. Wardhaugh states that situational code-switching occurs when the speaker uses one language in one situation and different language in another situation, and it does not involved the change of the topic.10 The following short dialogue describes an example of a situation when an Indonesian bilingual switches
9 Made Iwan Indrawan Jenda, Sociolingiostics, The study of Societies‟ Language, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu, 2012), p. 75.
10 Ronald Wardaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (New York: Basil Blacwell, 1986), p.102.
from Indonesian to English because of the presence of an English native-speaker friend (participant).
Agus : Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya, De.
Mark : Hi, Agus
Agus : Eh, how are you, Mark. Mark, this is Made, our friend from Mataram.
Made : Nice to meet you, Mark
Mark : Nice to meet you too. What are you two talking about?
Agus : Nah, ini dia kita bisa…Mark, can you help us?
Metaphorical Code-switching
A metaphorical code-switching happens when there is a change in the perception, or the purpose, or the topic of the conversation. In reference with the factors, this type of switching involves the Ends, the Act Sequence, or the Key, but not the situation. Bilinguals that code-switch metaphorically perhaps try to change the participants‟ feeling towards the situation. The following example illustrates how some Indonesian students jokingly switch from English to Indonesian to affect serious dialogue to be a bit humorous.
Made : We want to take it, to where ... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing (fishing), and we are drinking, singing, having fun, ok.
Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming...terus, kita jadi pusing-pusing (feeling dizzy) dah... ha ha ha...
Made : Are you joining, Jim? Jim : Okay, then.
The table below presents the classifications on code-switching (CS) based on two different points of view described here.
Point of View Code-Switching
Position of the changing in the utterance Tag code-switching
Inter-sentential code- switching
Intra-sentential code-
switching
Reason for switching Situational code- switching
Metaphorical code-
switching
In this research of code-switching in the speaking class of MOB English Course Pare Kediri,
the types of code switching is limited by the grammatical classification.
Functions of code switching
Baker has discussed the topic of code switching from a sociolinguistics perspective, in which he listed twelve main purposes of code switching, which are relevant to bilinguals talks in general. Some of these functions can be observed in classroom environment and in relevance to tutor and learners interactions. According to Baker, code switching can be used to emphasize a particular point, to substitute a word in place of unknown word in the target language, to express a concept that has no equivalent in the culture of the other language, to reinforce a request, to clarify a point, to express identity and communicate friendship, to ease tension and inject humour into a conversation, and in some bilingual situations, code switching occurs when certain topics are introduced.11
There are different reasons why a teacher or an instructor switches his codes in language classrooms because the goals and purposes of the teachers to enjoy code switching in EFL classes are different; for example,
11 C. Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD, 2006), P. 102-104.
they may enjoy code switching to translate, to clarify the points and some other reasons.12
Thus, according to Yletyinen, the functions of code switching are:13
Explanation
Explanation occurs when usually the teacher wants or sees a need to repeat what has been previously said in another language in order to help students understand her. According to Canagarajah, there are different strategies for explaining the issues being taught; he mentions repetition, reformulation, clarification, and exemplification of such strategy.
Requesting help
When the students are faced with a problem or question during the lesson, they usually resort to code- switching to find an answer to their problems. One common function of code-switching is requesting help. The students request help when
12 Mehdi Khonakdar and Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni , “Teachers’ Code Switching in an EFL Context: Why and When?”, Schoolink, (Vol. 3, No. 1, 2015), p. 2.
13 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.53.
they do not know where they are supposed to be in the book (for example wanting to know about line numbers in a chapter), or when they do not know how to pronounce a word or when they need a word translation or when they want to ask something to another student.
Helping each other14
The previous function dealt with students-teacher communication, where a student requests help from the teacher who provides an answer to the asked question. In EFL classroom there are also a few instances where students help each other when doing an activity which involves the whole class. Usually this function of code-switching occurs when the teacher asks student something in English when she cannot understand and the other student help by translating teacher‟s question into Indonesian. Cook sees this as positive way of using mother tongue in the classroom. By translating the teacher‟s word, students ensure that the weaker student knows what is happening. It does not always have to be the teacher who translates the question. Moreover, by
14 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.58.
letting the students help each other, teacher creates a more natural communication situation. She can be a consulted when a problem occurs, but she encourages the students to solve the problem among them, the one who knows what the teacher is saying can help the weaker student(s) by explaining the teacher’s word in Indonesian.
Self-correction15
Apart from being used to help out of others, students also use code-switching in self-correction. This function of code-switching is quite common in EFL classroom. The students employ self-correction in their utterance by beginning it in English but inserting one word or a couple of words in Indonesian in the middle of utterance. When self- correction occurs, a student is usually producing an answer to the teacher‟s question and when she realizes that a mistake has occurred in the answer she corrects it by inserting an Indonesian word and then continuing the answer, but now with a more correct answer.
The use of self-correction may indicate that student wants to keep separate the exercise and the
15 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.63.
need to correct something in answer. The students know that if the teacher asks them a question in English they are required to answer it in English. However, if they find that they have said something wrong in their answer, they resort to Indonesian to make it obvious to the hearers that now they want to change something in their answer. On the other hand, self- correction may occur when a student does not initially remember a word in English and says it first in Indonesian and then after remembering it says in English, continuing the answer in English.
Moving from one activity (topic) to another16
The previous three functions of code-switching (requesting help, students helping each other and self- corrections) have been employed by the students. However, as the function of explanation showed, teacher also uses code-switching. The function of moving from one activity to another is employed by the teacher to mark a shift in the lesson; furthermore, she employs this function quite often. This marking of activity shift in the lesson happens when the teacher moves from one topic to another: from discussing an exercise to teaching grammar and
16 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.66.
vice versa, from learning grammar to looking at a chapter and from giving instructions to doing a listening comprehension.
Code-switching in clearing miss understandings17 There are some instances where a misunderstanding occurs during a lesson and in order to clear it code- switching is employed. This function of code- switching is visible in EFL classroom. When there is a need to clear a misunderstanding it is usually the case that the teacher has misunderstood something and the student corrects her by using Indonesian language.
Not knowing the English Counterpart18
There are instances when a student or a teacher inserts an Indonesian word into an otherwise English utterance. Sometimes, if the student has inserted an Indonesian word, the teacher usually reacts to that by trying to find the correct translation but not always.
17 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.70.
18 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.72.
Checking for understanding19
Part of the foreign language learning process is to learn new words and expressions. The material is there to help this process; the students have chapters to read and exercises to do which teaches them new vocabulary. In the teaching situation, when the class is, for example, doing an activity in English, the teacher should make sure that all students know all the words in that activity. If there are new words or expressions, the teacher can ask the students what they mean in Indonesian. In other words, the teacher does not have to translate everything, by asking the students she lets them participate more actively to the lesson. Code- switching occurs when the word or expression is translated into Indonesian, or when the teacher asks about the new vocabulary in Indonesian.
Unofficial Interaction20
According to Canagarajah, interactions that are not demanded by the lesson are called unofficial interactions. In his study he discovered that it was the
19 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.75.
20 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.80.
mother tongue that was used in speech. He described the unofficial interactions as cases of student to student interaction, for example in group activities where procedural matters are discussed. However, sometimes the teacher employs this function as well, for instance, to discuss extra pedagogical matters such as happenings in the town. All in all, this function of code-switching occurs when either the students or the teacher are talking about issues not related strictly to the lesson.
Pupil’s Comment21
The previous category of functions dealt with unofficial communication occurring at the same time as the lesson was going on. The unofficial interaction that took place had little to do with the present lesson content. The function of students’ comments differs from the function of unofficial interactions in that the comments made by students are linked with the situation at hand. For example, teacher is thinking about a question on asking a question to one student by throwing ball game. At the same time the student is commenting on the situation in Indonesia. She has not
21 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.83.
been asked a question yet and she thinks she will not catch the ball when the teacher throws it to her. Although her comments are not necessarily meant for the whole class to hear, one can argue that it is different from unofficial interactions where the discussion is about out-of-content issues. The student uses code-switching to comment on the situation, Indonesian is a natural choice since the mother tongue is her stronger language; she is able to express herself better in Indonesian.
Pupil’s initiation22
In students’ initiation function student’s code- switching from Indonesian to English is followed by the teacher’s switch to English as well. For example, from the beginning of the lesson, the teacher has taught the students how to form a clause using the present verb forms because they will need that information in the verb test, they will have in a couple of minutes. This discussion takes place in Indonesian, however, causes code-switching to occur when one student arrives late. When he enters the classroom he apologizes in English for being late, a
22 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.87.
manner they have probably been taught earlier. He of course does not know what language the teacher has spoken before he came. Here the teacher, however, starts a conversation with Indonesian, she responds the student in English. This means that student‟s code-switching has led to the teacher code-switching as well. This is a good example of a situation where the teacher encourages student to speak English as she starts a conversation with him. Student also keeps up the conversation in English although he could answer in Indonesian to the teacher. Maybe he wants to show her that he can speak English, or that he wants to speak English. This example is interesting since the change is so clear, the code-switching to English is caused by the student and the teacher continues the code-switching.
Teacher Admonition23
The name for this category comes from Canagarajah’s article dealing with functions of codes- witching. Canagarajah explains this function as one that is used when the teacher is disappointed with the students, and she uses the mother tongue to express
23 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.89.
this anger or frustration. For example, when the class is starting to check their homework, the students have had three exercises to do at home and the teacher goes around in the classroom checking the students‟ books whether they have done these exercises. The teacher uses English when talking about the exercises, she answers to the students mostly in English when they tell her how many exercises they have done. However, as she goes around the classroom and hears what the students have to say about the way they have done the homework, it is becoming clear that some of them have not done their homework and this leads to the teacher employing code-switching from English to Finnish.
Grammar Translation24
As was pointed out above, in EFL classroom one theme in the lessons is grammar. Furthermore, grammar is usually taught in Indonesian. However, as the target is to teach English grammar, there is bound to be a lot of code-switching, which is conscious. There are two functions of code-switching when teaching grammar: grammar translation and grammar
24 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.91.
explanation. Here will be separated these functions from the function of explanation and treat them as individual functions. The reasons for this are, firstly, that the language is treated differently in explanations and when teaching grammar. When explanation occurs the language is a means for communication. When teaching grammar, though, the language is treated as an object. In other words, code-switching in explanation takes place because someone does not understand the teacher’s English words; in contrast, when the teacher is teaching grammar in Indonesian, code-switching occurs because of a necessity as the examples are in English. Secondly, in grammar translation and grammar explanation both the teacher and the students employ code-switching, whereas in explanation only the teacher employs code-switching. Gammar translation and grammar explanation should be treated as occurrences of code-switching since the language changes quite a lot during the teaching of grammar. These switches are conscious as the aim is to teach English grammar in Indonesian. It may be argued that there is no code-switching when grammar is being taught; however, here would remind that Grosjean defined code-switching as “the alternate use of two or more languages in the same utterance or
conversation”. Grammar explanation and grammar translation fit into this definition as the languages, English and Indonesian, are being used in the same utterance or teaching situation. Grammar translation means that while teaching and learning grammar there are instances when a clause is uttered both in Indonesian and English for the purpose of studying grammar. Grammar translation may occur either when the teacher asks in Indonesian a student to translate for instance a sentence into English, or when the teacher gives an example herself and says it both in Indonesian and in English.
Grammar Explanation25
Grammar explanation differs from grammar translation in that during teaching grammar in Indonesian, the teacher uses English words which she does not translate. The base language is Indonesian, English is used because the teacher is teaching English grammar; thus the examples are in English. Code-switching is almost mandatory when teaching grammar in an EFL classroom. As the students and the teacher share a mother tongue, it is
25 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.94.
easier to use that as the mode of instruction. The students have learned grammar in Indonesian lessons, which means that they know the Indonesian terminology. In EFL classroom the purpose is to learn English grammar which explains the English examples and translation used when teaching the grammar.
Lapses26
Lapses are instances where the teacher is speaking Indonesian but says a word or a couple words in English or English into Indonesian. These English words are spoken almost accidentally, since they are not required. It is understandable that lapses occur in the teachers‟ speech since they are used to speaking English as they teach English during a lesson and they may slip an Indonesian word sometimes spontaneously.
Sert in his journal devides the functions of code switching into techers’ code switching and students’ code switching. Code switching is used by the teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the students.
26 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.95.
In this sense, one may speak off the contribution of code switching for creating a supportive language environment in the classroom. Another explanation for the unctionality of code switching in classroom settings is its repetitive function. In this case, the teacher uses code switching in order to transfer the necessary knowledge for the students for clarity. Following the instruction in target language, the teacher code switches to native language in order to clarify meaning, and in this way stresses importance on the foreign language content for efficient comprehension.27
Then for the students, The first function of code switching is equivalence. In this case, the student makes use of the native equivalent of a certain lexical item in target language and therefore code switches to his/her native tongue. This process may be correlated with the deficiency in linguistic competence of target language, which makes the student use the native lexical item when he/she has not the competence for using the target language explanation for a particular lexical item. So “equivalence” functions as a defensive mechanism for students as it gives the student the opportunity to continue
27 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 2.
communication by bridging the gaps resulting from foreign language incompetence.
The next function to be introduced is floor-holding. During a conversation in the target language, the students fill the stopgap with native language use. It may be suggested that this is a mechanism used by the students in order to avoid gaps in communication, which may result from the lack of fluency in target language. The learners performing code switching for floor holding generally have the same problem: they can not recall the appropriate target language structure or lexicon. It may be claimed that this type of language alternation may have negative effects on learning a foreign language; since it may result in loss of fluency in long term.28
The third consideration in students’ code switching is reiteration, which is pointed by Eldridge as: “messages are reinforced, emphasized, or clarified where the message has already been transmitted in one code, but not understood”. In this case, the message in target language is repeated by the student in native tongue through which the learner tries to give the meaning by making use of a repetition technique. The reason for this specific language
28 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 2.
alternation case may be two-folds: first, he/she may not have transferred the meaning exactly in target language. Second, the student may think that it is more appropriate to code switch in order to indicate the teacher that the content is clearly understood by him/her.
The last function of learners’ code switching to be introduced here is conflict control. For the potentially conflictive language use of a learners (meaning that the learners tends to avoid a misunderstanding or tends to utter words indirectly for specific purposes), the code switching is a strategy to transfer the intended meaning. The underlying reasons for the tendency to use this type of code switching may vary according to students’ needs, intentions or purposes. Additionally, the lack of some culturally equivalent lexis among the native language and target language--which may lead to violation of the transference of intended meaning--may result in code switching for conflict control; therefore possible misunderstandings are avoided.29
29 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 3.
Language Variation
Because there are many languages are used in society, language variation occurs in the social environment. According to Yule that each language has more than one variety, especially in the way in which it is spoken. People may not only speak in one language but also some languages is used for interaction with their group in their daily life and each language has its certain characteristics, which cause the variety of a language.
Richards and Jack argue that “language variation refers to the differences in pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language, which may be related to regional, social class, and educational background to the degree of formality of a situation in which language is used”.1 It means that the various regions, social class, and educational background may cause a variety of a language.
Further, bilingual and multilingual society may cause language variation occurs. For some reasons, people need
1 Richard, Jack and Richard Schmidt, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. (London: Person Edication Limited, 2002), p. 557.
choose the language use in their interaction, it can be code switching, code mixing, or other variations.
According to Chaer and Agustina that “code switching occurs when one uses clause which has grammatical structure of another language” while “code mixing is characterized by using a word or phrase, but it has no grammatical structure”.2 From that statement, the writer concludes that if someone uses a word or a phrase from another language, the person has mixed his or her code, not switched, but if uses the clause has grammatical structure of another language, it means that the person has switched his or her code.
For most individuals, mother tongue is the most used conversely. Second language tends to be the secondary in the terms of use. However, it does not happen to migrant community. Migrants tend to lose their mother tongue as primary medium of communication. Mother tongue is only used for home, friendship, and hearth communication. In this community, mother tongue is displaced by the dominant language, the language of host community.3 If this community observed, it will be found a phenomenon in which one person uses two languages or more and often called bilingual or multilingual. In using both languages, the possibility of using
2 Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustine, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan awal. (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2004), p. 115.
3 T. Roger Bell, Sociolinguistic: Goals, approach, and problem, (London: Batsford itd, 1976). p. 116.
two languages perfectly is rare. Person switches and mixes one language with other partially. In sociolinguistics, these terms are called code switching and code mixing.
Code Switching
Definition
According to Trudgill that “code switching is the process where bilingual speaker switches between one language and another language within the same conversation or called a bilingual person”.4 A bilingual person is a person who is able to use two languages.
Code switching also occurs when people after their speech and behavior to fit into different social situations. The most common changes involve vocabulary and ones of casualness or formality.5 For example is, when we converse with friends, we prefer to use informal language but when the teacher or lecturer gets into the conversation, automatically the speaker switches this language into formal language.
Brown states that “code switching can occur between different language, dialect, or style within one
4 Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction. (Harmondworth: Penguin Book Ltd, 1974). p. 23.
5 Nancy Bonvillain, Language, Culture, and Communication, (New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2003), p. 335.
sentence”.6 This theory is supported by Hymes in Chaer and Agustina, he says that code switching has become terms for alternate us of two or more language, varieties of language, or event speech styles. From theories above, one can conclude that code switching happens when someone switch his/her languages.7
From the explanations, it can be conclude that code switching is the process of speaker switches between one language and another language in the same conversation, the changes that occur within overall the context of sentence or issue. To make it clear, it is said in an example; when someone used English in conversation then changed it into Indonesian to continue his speech, it is called code switching. For example, in the English classroom teacher explain in English the he said: “Pay attention!” Materi ini sangat sulit”. From that speech, teacher used English “Pay attention!” then he continue in his speech by Indonesian “Materi ini sangat sulit”. The Indonesian he said has some reasons. Perhaps the student don’t understand the English of “Materi ini sangat sulit”, so he said in Indonesia.
6 Steven Brown and Salvatore Attardo, An Introduction to Applied Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Nonspecialict, (USA: Micigan Press, 2000), p. 84.
7 Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustine, Sosiolinguistik: Perkenalan awal, (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2004). p. 108.
Types of code switching
The types of code switching can be classified in two classification, those are grammatical and contextual classification. The grammatical classification which is based on the position of the different codes found in the utterances or sentence while the contextual classification is based on the reasons why people switch. According to the grammatical and contextual classification, these are the types of code switching:8
Three types of code switching based on grammatical classification:
Tag code-switching, happens when a bilingual inserts short expression (tag) from different language at the end of his /her utterances.
e.g.: An Indonesian bilingual switches from English into Indonesian, “It is okay, no problem, ya nggak?”
Inter-sentential code-switching happens when there is complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language.
e.g. Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak kok didengerin.
8 Made Iwan Indrawan Jenda, Sociolingiostics, The study of Societies‟ Language, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu, 2012), p. 75.
Intra-sentential code-switching is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language.
e.g. The hotel, yang megah itu, is really huge and unbelievely majestic.
The contextual classifications devided into two types of code-switching, namely the situational and metaphorical code-switching.9
Situational Code-Switching
A situational code-switching appears when there is a change in the situation that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other. The changing situations involved could be the Setting, the Participants, or the Norms of Interaction. Wardhaugh states that situational code-switching occurs when the speaker uses one language in one situation and different language in another situation, and it does not involved the change of the topic.10 The following short dialogue describes an example of a situation when an Indonesian bilingual switches
9 Made Iwan Indrawan Jenda, Sociolingiostics, The study of Societies‟ Language, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu, 2012), p. 75.
10 Ronald Wardaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (New York: Basil Blacwell, 1986), p.102.
from Indonesian to English because of the presence of an English native-speaker friend (participant).
Agus : Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya, De.
Mark : Hi, Agus
Agus : Eh, how are you, Mark. Mark, this is Made, our friend from Mataram.
Made : Nice to meet you, Mark
Mark : Nice to meet you too. What are you two talking about?
Agus : Nah, ini dia kita bisa…Mark, can you help us?
Metaphorical Code-switching
A metaphorical code-switching happens when there is a change in the perception, or the purpose, or the topic of the conversation. In reference with the factors, this type of switching involves the Ends, the Act Sequence, or the Key, but not the situation. Bilinguals that code-switch metaphorically perhaps try to change the participants‟ feeling towards the situation. The following example illustrates how some Indonesian students jokingly switch from English to Indonesian to affect serious dialogue to be a bit humorous.
Made : We want to take it, to where ... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing (fishing), and we are drinking, singing, having fun, ok.
Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming...terus, kita jadi pusing-pusing (feeling dizzy) dah... ha ha ha...
Made : Are you joining, Jim? Jim : Okay, then.
The table below presents the classifications on code-switching (CS) based on two different points of view described here.
Point of View Code-Switching
Position of the changing in the utterance Tag code-switching
Inter-sentential code- switching
Intra-sentential code-
switching
Reason for switching Situational code- switching
Metaphorical code-
switching
In this research of code-switching in the speaking class of MOB English Course Pare Kediri,
the types of code switching is limited by the grammatical classification.
Functions of code switching
Baker has discussed the topic of code switching from a sociolinguistics perspective, in which he listed twelve main purposes of code switching, which are relevant to bilinguals talks in general. Some of these functions can be observed in classroom environment and in relevance to tutor and learners interactions. According to Baker, code switching can be used to emphasize a particular point, to substitute a word in place of unknown word in the target language, to express a concept that has no equivalent in the culture of the other language, to reinforce a request, to clarify a point, to express identity and communicate friendship, to ease tension and inject humour into a conversation, and in some bilingual situations, code switching occurs when certain topics are introduced.11
There are different reasons why a teacher or an instructor switches his codes in language classrooms because the goals and purposes of the teachers to enjoy code switching in EFL classes are different; for example,
11 C. Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD, 2006), P. 102-104.
they may enjoy code switching to translate, to clarify the points and some other reasons.12
Thus, according to Yletyinen, the functions of code switching are:13
Explanation
Explanation occurs when usually the teacher wants or sees a need to repeat what has been previously said in another language in order to help students understand her. According to Canagarajah, there are different strategies for explaining the issues being taught; he mentions repetition, reformulation, clarification, and exemplification of such strategy.
Requesting help
When the students are faced with a problem or question during the lesson, they usually resort to code- switching to find an answer to their problems. One common function of code-switching is requesting help. The students request help when
12 Mehdi Khonakdar and Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni , “Teachers’ Code Switching in an EFL Context: Why and When?”, Schoolink, (Vol. 3, No. 1, 2015), p. 2.
13 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.53.
they do not know where they are supposed to be in the book (for example wanting to know about line numbers in a chapter), or when they do not know how to pronounce a word or when they need a word translation or when they want to ask something to another student.
Helping each other14
The previous function dealt with students-teacher communication, where a student requests help from the teacher who provides an answer to the asked question. In EFL classroom there are also a few instances where students help each other when doing an activity which involves the whole class. Usually this function of code-switching occurs when the teacher asks student something in English when she cannot understand and the other student help by translating teacher‟s question into Indonesian. Cook sees this as positive way of using mother tongue in the classroom. By translating the teacher‟s word, students ensure that the weaker student knows what is happening. It does not always have to be the teacher who translates the question. Moreover, by
14 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.58.
letting the students help each other, teacher creates a more natural communication situation. She can be a consulted when a problem occurs, but she encourages the students to solve the problem among them, the one who knows what the teacher is saying can help the weaker student(s) by explaining the teacher’s word in Indonesian.
Self-correction15
Apart from being used to help out of others, students also use code-switching in self-correction. This function of code-switching is quite common in EFL classroom. The students employ self-correction in their utterance by beginning it in English but inserting one word or a couple of words in Indonesian in the middle of utterance. When self- correction occurs, a student is usually producing an answer to the teacher‟s question and when she realizes that a mistake has occurred in the answer she corrects it by inserting an Indonesian word and then continuing the answer, but now with a more correct answer.
The use of self-correction may indicate that student wants to keep separate the exercise and the
15 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.63.
need to correct something in answer. The students know that if the teacher asks them a question in English they are required to answer it in English. However, if they find that they have said something wrong in their answer, they resort to Indonesian to make it obvious to the hearers that now they want to change something in their answer. On the other hand, self- correction may occur when a student does not initially remember a word in English and says it first in Indonesian and then after remembering it says in English, continuing the answer in English.
Moving from one activity (topic) to another16
The previous three functions of code-switching (requesting help, students helping each other and self- corrections) have been employed by the students. However, as the function of explanation showed, teacher also uses code-switching. The function of moving from one activity to another is employed by the teacher to mark a shift in the lesson; furthermore, she employs this function quite often. This marking of activity shift in the lesson happens when the teacher moves from one topic to another: from discussing an exercise to teaching grammar and
16 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.66.
vice versa, from learning grammar to looking at a chapter and from giving instructions to doing a listening comprehension.
Code-switching in clearing miss understandings17 There are some instances where a misunderstanding occurs during a lesson and in order to clear it code- switching is employed. This function of code- switching is visible in EFL classroom. When there is a need to clear a misunderstanding it is usually the case that the teacher has misunderstood something and the student corrects her by using Indonesian language.
Not knowing the English Counterpart18
There are instances when a student or a teacher inserts an Indonesian word into an otherwise English utterance. Sometimes, if the student has inserted an Indonesian word, the teacher usually reacts to that by trying to find the correct translation but not always.
17 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.70.
18 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.72.
Checking for understanding19
Part of the foreign language learning process is to learn new words and expressions. The material is there to help this process; the students have chapters to read and exercises to do which teaches them new vocabulary. In the teaching situation, when the class is, for example, doing an activity in English, the teacher should make sure that all students know all the words in that activity. If there are new words or expressions, the teacher can ask the students what they mean in Indonesian. In other words, the teacher does not have to translate everything, by asking the students she lets them participate more actively to the lesson. Code- switching occurs when the word or expression is translated into Indonesian, or when the teacher asks about the new vocabulary in Indonesian.
Unofficial Interaction20
According to Canagarajah, interactions that are not demanded by the lesson are called unofficial interactions. In his study he discovered that it was the
19 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.75.
20 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.80.
mother tongue that was used in speech. He described the unofficial interactions as cases of student to student interaction, for example in group activities where procedural matters are discussed. However, sometimes the teacher employs this function as well, for instance, to discuss extra pedagogical matters such as happenings in the town. All in all, this function of code-switching occurs when either the students or the teacher are talking about issues not related strictly to the lesson.
Pupil’s Comment21
The previous category of functions dealt with unofficial communication occurring at the same time as the lesson was going on. The unofficial interaction that took place had little to do with the present lesson content. The function of students’ comments differs from the function of unofficial interactions in that the comments made by students are linked with the situation at hand. For example, teacher is thinking about a question on asking a question to one student by throwing ball game. At the same time the student is commenting on the situation in Indonesia. She has not
21 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.83.
been asked a question yet and she thinks she will not catch the ball when the teacher throws it to her. Although her comments are not necessarily meant for the whole class to hear, one can argue that it is different from unofficial interactions where the discussion is about out-of-content issues. The student uses code-switching to comment on the situation, Indonesian is a natural choice since the mother tongue is her stronger language; she is able to express herself better in Indonesian.
Pupil’s initiation22
In students’ initiation function student’s code- switching from Indonesian to English is followed by the teacher’s switch to English as well. For example, from the beginning of the lesson, the teacher has taught the students how to form a clause using the present verb forms because they will need that information in the verb test, they will have in a couple of minutes. This discussion takes place in Indonesian, however, causes code-switching to occur when one student arrives late. When he enters the classroom he apologizes in English for being late, a
22 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.87.
manner they have probably been taught earlier. He of course does not know what language the teacher has spoken before he came. Here the teacher, however, starts a conversation with Indonesian, she responds the student in English. This means that student‟s code-switching has led to the teacher code-switching as well. This is a good example of a situation where the teacher encourages student to speak English as she starts a conversation with him. Student also keeps up the conversation in English although he could answer in Indonesian to the teacher. Maybe he wants to show her that he can speak English, or that he wants to speak English. This example is interesting since the change is so clear, the code-switching to English is caused by the student and the teacher continues the code-switching.
Teacher Admonition23
The name for this category comes from Canagarajah’s article dealing with functions of codes- witching. Canagarajah explains this function as one that is used when the teacher is disappointed with the students, and she uses the mother tongue to express
23 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.89.
this anger or frustration. For example, when the class is starting to check their homework, the students have had three exercises to do at home and the teacher goes around in the classroom checking the students‟ books whether they have done these exercises. The teacher uses English when talking about the exercises, she answers to the students mostly in English when they tell her how many exercises they have done. However, as she goes around the classroom and hears what the students have to say about the way they have done the homework, it is becoming clear that some of them have not done their homework and this leads to the teacher employing code-switching from English to Finnish.
Grammar Translation24
As was pointed out above, in EFL classroom one theme in the lessons is grammar. Furthermore, grammar is usually taught in Indonesian. However, as the target is to teach English grammar, there is bound to be a lot of code-switching, which is conscious. There are two functions of code-switching when teaching grammar: grammar translation and grammar
24 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.91.
explanation. Here will be separated these functions from the function of explanation and treat them as individual functions. The reasons for this are, firstly, that the language is treated differently in explanations and when teaching grammar. When explanation occurs the language is a means for communication. When teaching grammar, though, the language is treated as an object. In other words, code-switching in explanation takes place because someone does not understand the teacher’s English words; in contrast, when the teacher is teaching grammar in Indonesian, code-switching occurs because of a necessity as the examples are in English. Secondly, in grammar translation and grammar explanation both the teacher and the students employ code-switching, whereas in explanation only the teacher employs code-switching. Gammar translation and grammar explanation should be treated as occurrences of code-switching since the language changes quite a lot during the teaching of grammar. These switches are conscious as the aim is to teach English grammar in Indonesian. It may be argued that there is no code-switching when grammar is being taught; however, here would remind that Grosjean defined code-switching as “the alternate use of two or more languages in the same utterance or
conversation”. Grammar explanation and grammar translation fit into this definition as the languages, English and Indonesian, are being used in the same utterance or teaching situation. Grammar translation means that while teaching and learning grammar there are instances when a clause is uttered both in Indonesian and English for the purpose of studying grammar. Grammar translation may occur either when the teacher asks in Indonesian a student to translate for instance a sentence into English, or when the teacher gives an example herself and says it both in Indonesian and in English.
Grammar Explanation25
Grammar explanation differs from grammar translation in that during teaching grammar in Indonesian, the teacher uses English words which she does not translate. The base language is Indonesian, English is used because the teacher is teaching English grammar; thus the examples are in English. Code-switching is almost mandatory when teaching grammar in an EFL classroom. As the students and the teacher share a mother tongue, it is
25 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.94.
easier to use that as the mode of instruction. The students have learned grammar in Indonesian lessons, which means that they know the Indonesian terminology. In EFL classroom the purpose is to learn English grammar which explains the English examples and translation used when teaching the grammar.
Lapses26
Lapses are instances where the teacher is speaking Indonesian but says a word or a couple words in English or English into Indonesian. These English words are spoken almost accidentally, since they are not required. It is understandable that lapses occur in the teachers‟ speech since they are used to speaking English as they teach English during a lesson and they may slip an Indonesian word sometimes spontaneously.
Sert in his journal devides the functions of code switching into techers’ code switching and students’ code switching. Code switching is used by the teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the students.
26 Hana Yletyinen, The Functions of Code Switching in EFL Classroom Discourse (Finlandia: University of Jyvaskyla, 2004), p.95.
In this sense, one may speak off the contribution of code switching for creating a supportive language environment in the classroom. Another explanation for the unctionality of code switching in classroom settings is its repetitive function. In this case, the teacher uses code switching in order to transfer the necessary knowledge for the students for clarity. Following the instruction in target language, the teacher code switches to native language in order to clarify meaning, and in this way stresses importance on the foreign language content for efficient comprehension.27
Then for the students, The first function of code switching is equivalence. In this case, the student makes use of the native equivalent of a certain lexical item in target language and therefore code switches to his/her native tongue. This process may be correlated with the deficiency in linguistic competence of target language, which makes the student use the native lexical item when he/she has not the competence for using the target language explanation for a particular lexical item. So “equivalence” functions as a defensive mechanism for students as it gives the student the opportunity to continue
27 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 2.
communication by bridging the gaps resulting from foreign language incompetence.
The next function to be introduced is floor-holding. During a conversation in the target language, the students fill the stopgap with native language use. It may be suggested that this is a mechanism used by the students in order to avoid gaps in communication, which may result from the lack of fluency in target language. The learners performing code switching for floor holding generally have the same problem: they can not recall the appropriate target language structure or lexicon. It may be claimed that this type of language alternation may have negative effects on learning a foreign language; since it may result in loss of fluency in long term.28
The third consideration in students’ code switching is reiteration, which is pointed by Eldridge as: “messages are reinforced, emphasized, or clarified where the message has already been transmitted in one code, but not understood”. In this case, the message in target language is repeated by the student in native tongue through which the learner tries to give the meaning by making use of a repetition technique. The reason for this specific language
28 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 2.
alternation case may be two-folds: first, he/she may not have transferred the meaning exactly in target language. Second, the student may think that it is more appropriate to code switch in order to indicate the teacher that the content is clearly understood by him/her.
The last function of learners’ code switching to be introduced here is conflict control. For the potentially conflictive language use of a learners (meaning that the learners tends to avoid a misunderstanding or tends to utter words indirectly for specific purposes), the code switching is a strategy to transfer the intended meaning. The underlying reasons for the tendency to use this type of code switching may vary according to students’ needs, intentions or purposes. Additionally, the lack of some culturally equivalent lexis among the native language and target language--which may lead to violation of the transference of intended meaning--may result in code switching for conflict control; therefore possible misunderstandings are avoided.29
29 Olcay Sert, “The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms”, TESL, (Vol. XI, No. 8, August 2005), p. 3.
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